Cartography

Molecular cartography is the scientific discipline of recognizing and identifying the multifaceted and intricate array of interacting genes and gene products that characterize the function and specialization of each individual cell in the context of jail cell–cell interaction, tissue and organ function.

From: Encyclopedia of Stress (Second Edition) , 2007

Cartography

J.M. Olson , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

Cartography is 'the subject area dealing with the formulation, production, broadcasting and study of maps' (International Cartographic Association, 1995). As a field of study, cartography is most ordinarily found in geography departments in Northward America but is often a split discipline in other areas of the world. It is ane of several mapping sciences. The term 'research' in the discipline may refer to the gathering of information from which a map is compiled or the systematic discovery of new data well-nigh maps. Responding to irresolute social, intellectual, and technological innovations, cartography has risen from its roots in gestures and marks on the ground to a highly sophisticated and varied endeavor that uses data from aerial photographs, satellite images, and global positioning systems as well as other sources. Major concepts in cartography include scale, projection, spatial relationship, generalization, and symbolization and data modeling. Maps may be of the full general reference type (showing a variety of individual features) or thematic (showing a distribution) or somewhere between these ends of the spectrum.

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Immune Suppression*

P. Prolo , F. Chiappelli , in Encyclopedia of Stress (2nd Edition), 2007

A New Strategy: Molecular Cartography

Molecular cartography is the science of recognizing and identifying the multifaceted and intricate array of interacting genes and cistron products that characterize the function and specialization of each private prison cell in the context of cell–cell interaction, tissue and organ function. The relevance of molecular cartography pertains to every domain of physiology, including immunity.

Molecular cartography provides the fundamental knowledge and understanding of the genomic, the proteomic, and interactomic processes that regulate the emergence, stability, and function of immune cell populations, and the mechanisms past which the psychoneuroendocrine system regulates immunity. It produces new fundamental knowledge with respect to the processes that regulate allowed suppression.

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Geographic Data and Land Classification in Support of Woods Planning

Pete Bettinger , ... Donald Fifty. Grebner , in Woods Management and Planning (2d Edition), 2017

8 Mapping

Cartography is the art and science of making maps. At least through the 1980s, cartography was a skill developed every bit a outcome of extensive experience in making maps with tools such as technical pens and t-squares, and a steady hand. With the appearance of GIS, cartographic skills at present mainly are developed through the manipulation of computer graphics. Maps are abstractions of the real world, still if constructed properly, they have the power to quickly communicate a message to a user (Fig. 3.11). Every bit a result, a person making a map should keep in mind the post-obit, as suggested in Wing and Bettinger (2008):

Figure 3.11. A management map constructed to illustrate proposed harvest areas on the Lincoln Tract for a 5-twelvemonth time period.
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The map message, or story that the map is telling

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The end-user of the map, and what they want to see

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The fashion data are displayed on the map

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The format of the printed or digital version of the map

Maps are usually two-dimensional representations of a landscape, and the objective of making one should be to produce a graphic that communicates a message effectively. Nearly GIS software programs provide the capability to develop sophisticated maps with relative ease. With the appearance of three-dimensional printing this may alter in the near future. The components necessary for a professional map include a northward pointer, the appropriate calibration, and an informative fable. Annotation such as a description of the mapmaker and the date that the map was prepared are likewise important map elements.

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Geographic Data Systems

Fifty. Montana , in International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2008

Representation of Public Health Data

Cartography is every bit much a scientific discipline as it is an art. Mapping the results is one of the most important outputs of a GIS analysis. Survey or aggregate data are generally displayed in choropleth or shaded maps. Density or count data can exist represented by dot maps. Betoken features such as health facilities or customs locations are normally represented by symbols. Electronic maps or GIS visualization gives the user the power to change or define the scale, extent, and symbology. Care must be taken in representing results on maps; peradventure the almost comprehensive reference on this subject is Mark Monmonier'due south How to Prevarication with Maps (1996). Two of the most common issues with map representation are the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) and ecological fallacy. While well-nigh public health specialists may be familiar with ecological fallacy (inferences from aggregated data may or may not apply to individuals or units beneath the aggregation), most are not familiar with MAUP. Monmonier uses the example of the Wide Street cholera outbreak to illustrate how aggregating cholera cases to different levels of geography produces seemingly conflicting results. The unit level of aggregation, geographic size and design of the units, and number of units together plant the MAUP. In GIS, this problem is ordinarily addressed by carrying out an analysis at various scales in lodge to ostend the validity of the results.

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Cave Exploration and Mapping in the Sierra de El Abra Region

William R. Elliott , in Biological science and Evolution of the Mexican Cavefish, 2016

Mapping and Cartography Methods

Cave cartography is bones descriptive scientific discipline. To explore a cavern well, one must map it as i goes. A cave map is essential for route finding and agreement the hydrology, geologic history, and potential connections to other caves. A cave map is an important certificate in establishing a cave as an bodily natural resources. Some of the early maps of fish caves were freehand sketches or compass and stride surveys, which are quite inaccurate in larger caves. Cavern maps are used to note the locations of many points of scientific interest, including bat roosts and habitat. The special problems of speleology and cavern biology are found in an extensive literature, simply a practiced introduction may be found in Elsevier'southward 2007 Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst, in which Elliott discusses cave protection.

The 1940 expedition to Cueva Chica made the first published cave map from the region (Bridges, 1940; Breder, 1942). Charles Breder used a pocket-size plane table with a drawing sheet on a tripod, and an instrument for cartoon lines and measuring distances optically to a stadia rod, which he sighted through a telescopic alidade. This method works well for outdoor surveys, just is non suited for dark caves with rugged terrain. Their map became increasingly inaccurate as errors in the drawing accumulated toward the lower end of the cavern. The author remapped the cavern from 1970 to 1974 using standard cave surveying equipment at that time: a steel survey record and a Brunton pocket transit, which is a small magnetic compass with sights and a clinometer for measuring slopes. Similar equipment is still used past geologists, the armed services, and other field personnel. In the 1970s and 1980s, most cavers changed to the Suunto or similar liquid-filled compass and clinometer, which makes bespeak-to-indicate, handheld surveying easier. In either case, meticulous notes are kept in a book with taped distance, magnetic azimuth (bearing), inclination, and LRUD (left, correct, up, down) distances at each numbered station. Carefully scaled drawings are fabricated in program, profile, and cantankerous-section views. Three or iv cavers incorporate a survey squad, and multiple teams or trips may be needed to map the entire cave.

In the 1970s, cavern survey data were however "reduced" to rectangular coordinates (x, y, z) using pencil, paper, and trigonometric tables, or plotted with a drafting motorcar. A slide rule or a calculator was used for calculations. AMCS cavers converted to the metric system in the 1980s, and cavers developed sophisticated mainframe figurer programs for processing survey data from large caves, and plotting information technology on large plotters. Profiles, longitudinal sections of a cave, became easier to plot, and it became standard to depict caves in program and profile views, especially pit caves requiring rope. Cave maps became better models of the caves, allowing scientific inferences to be made nigh hydrogeologic history.

Today the author and many cavers use the Walls cave survey programme, one of several that allows one to plot the programme and contour survey lines along with LRUD data, and transport it to a vector drawing program like Adobe Illustrator for the final cartoon

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Teacher Expertise

R. Bromme , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

6 The Psychological Structure of Professional Cognition

Whereas the cartography described above deals with the semantic content—in other words, the different domains of teacher knowledge—it is also necessary to distinguish the psychological structure of cognition, i.eastward., the quality of mental representation. This requires farther conceptual differentiations. One widespread but very imprecise differentiation is that betwixt declarative knowledge (e.1000., on facts and relationships) and procedural cognition (i.e., the know-how for putting deportment into upshot). However, empirical analyses of teacher expertise require more precise theoretical differentiations of knowledge types like those proposed by, for example, de Jong and Ferguson-Hessler ( 1996). The authors discriminate between, for example, situational noesis (referring to typical episodes and contexts), conceptual knowledge (about facts and principles inside i domain), procedural knowledge (most actions), and strategic noesis (a metacognitive component). Yet, the knowledge domains described to a higher place do not appear inside i cognition type solitary. For instance, curricular knowledge includes not only conceptual knowledge, as is immediately apparent, but likewise episodes containing typical task structures for the lesson. Likewise, the philosophy of the schoolhouse subject field should not be classified to strategic knowledge alone, but also contains elements of conceptual knowledge.

A differentiated discrimination of content domains and knowledge types is important, because information technology can explicate why the formation and development of expertise requires a diverseness of different types of learning.

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Introduction to Cartography of the Brain

Arthur W. Toga , John C. Mazziotta , in Brain Mapping: The Methods (2d Edition), 2002

IX. Summary

An introduction to cartography of the brain is, by its very intent, broad in its coverage. This affiliate has described the emergence of cartographic strategies and their awarding to a better understanding of brain construction and function. Maps of the brain are dissimilar from maps of other objects, because they must adapt so many diverse aspects of neuroscientific inquest. Therefore, there are many different versions of encephalon maps. The degree to which each is successful depends non only upon the bachelor technology for acquiring the information, analyzing them, and taking advantage of them, but on how it is used with complete understanding of its underlying assumptions and limitations. Equally of import is the organized religion garnered by these maps. The degree to which maps of the encephalon are adult and used by the scientific community depends on the collective belief that the information are accurate, reliable, representative, and in a higher place all, useful.

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Cartographic Visualization

Yard.J. Kraak , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

4 Visualization and exploration

What is exploratory cartography? The environs has just been described: a person is trying to solve a particular geo-problem and is exploring various geospatial databases. Exploration also means working with unknown data. However, what is unknown for 1 is not necessarily unknown to others. For case, browsing in Microsoft'south Encarta Earth Atlas is an exploration for most of us because of its wealth of information. With products like these, such exploration takes place inside boundaries set by the producers. Cartographic knowledge is incorporated in program wizards resulting in pre-designed maps. Some users feel this to be a constraint, only those same users will no longer experience constrained as before long as they follow the web links attached to this electronic atlas. This case shows that the surroundings, the information, and the type of users influence one's view of what exploration entails.

Returning to the sentence driving the visualization procedure 'How do I say what to whom and is it constructive' some similarities equally well, equally differences between modes of visualization: presentation and exploration. 'How' even so represents the cartographic methods and techniques. All the same, new engineering is emerging and this offers challenges and opportunities, such equally blitheness, the application of the third dimension and virtual reality, multimedia, etc. 'I' is no longer just the cartographer, merely an skilful geoscientist. In the very near future, it can probably be just anyone having access to the Www. 'What' no longer represents a relatively well-defined and known data gear up; at least, certainly not from the user perspective. 'To whom' seems to be simpler than before; it is not a relatively well-defined user group, simply the same person represented past 'I,' the expert geoscientist in the role of cartographer. 'Effective' raises some interesting questions. When a map is used, the information to exist transferred is known and, for all issues involved, can somehow exist measured. But how tin can the visual thinking procedure be measured? If it is considered positively, is it because of the efficient graphics or considering of the geoscientist's clever thinking? These questions become more circuitous if nosotros realize that nosotros do non even know the initial aim of the visualization in these circumstances.

The most prominent modify is the shift from supply-driven cartography to a demand-driven arroyo. Although having many people making maps without any cartographic cognition might seem wrong, those not-cartographers volition also introduce fresh views, equally for instance described by Keller and Keller (1993). They distinguish three steps in the visualization process: the first identifies the visualization goal; the 2d removes mental roadblocks; and the third designs the brandish in item. In the second pace, Keller and Keller suggest taking some distance from the discipline in order to reduce the furnishings of traditional constraints. Why not choose an alternative mapping method? For case, evidence a video of the landscape next to a topographic map. New, fresh, creative graphics could exist the issue, they might also offering different insights and would probably have more impact than traditional mapping methods. During the third footstep, which is especially applicative in an exploratory surround, i has to make up one's mind betwixt mapping data and visualizing phenomena.

An exploratory visualization environment offers the tools to human action in the means previously suggested. Such an environment should permit the user to wait at geospatial and other geo-referenced information in whatever combination, at whatever calibration, with the aim of seeing or finding geospatial patterns (which may be hidden). Geospatial patterns can exist divers as variations in location, attributes or fourth dimension, or a combination of any of the 3 geospatial components within an area of interest. Ane of the start concepts of visual geospatial information exploration was introduced by Monmonier (1989) when he described the term brushing (see Fig. 4). This is when the pick of an object in a map automatically highlights the respective elements in the other graphics. Depending on the view in which one selects the objects, there is geographical brushing (clicking in the map), aspect brushing (clicking in the diagram or table), and temporal brushing (clicking on the fourth dimension line). As such, the user gets an overview of the relation among geographic objects based on location, characteristics, and fourth dimension.

Effigy 4. Brushing

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Biomedical Research Since the Molecular Revolution

Yoram Vodovotz , Gary An , in Translational Systems Biological science, 2015

In that Empire, the Art of Cartography attained such Perfection that the map of a single Province occupied the entirety of a City, and the map of the Empire, the entirety of a Province. In time, those Unconscionable Maps no longer satisfied, and the Cartographers Guilds struck a Map of the Empire whose size was that of the Empire, and which coincided bespeak for point with it. The following Generations, who were non so fond of the Report of Cartography equally their Forebears had been, saw that the vast Map was Useless…

—Jorge Luis Borges, "On Exactitude in science"

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Computer-Based Mapping

Alberto Giordano , in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005

Introduction

For near of its history, cartography was a highly institutionalized enterprise. Cartographers were often academy or regime employees or worked for a commercial visitor. Making maps required a highly skilled labor forcefulness and the capital investments needed for the production, reproduction, and distribution of maps were not normally available to the full general public. Maps were ofttimes classified materials and, at the farthermost, land secrets.

Much of this has changed. The low cost of software and hardware has fabricated it possible for individuals to make maps and distribute them via the Internet. Geographic databases are readily available online, so that 1 tin can—at least in the United states—produce fairly sophisticated maps with data publicly available on the Cyberspace. This democratization of the mapmaking enterprise is one of the most important and probably long-lasting effects of the computer revolution in cartography. Alternative representations of the world have become possible, oftentimes in competition with official views. Individual citizens, nonprofit organizations, and interest groups can make and distribute their own maps. On the other hand, professional cartographers often lament the poor quality of many productions, the dilettantism of several among the improvised mapmakers, and the lack of knowledge of bones cartographic principles. There is truth in these statements. Cartography is the art and science of communicating spatial data graphically and its rules, principles, and foundations should be learned and applied even by nonprofessional cartographers. For example, different cartographic projections have unlike backdrop that make them suitable for showing certain types of data and not others: an equal-expanse project should be employed when representing density of population, an azimuthal projection should exist employed when the map is being used for navigation, so on. Some other issue that has oft surfaced concerns the reliability of the sources used in the compilation of many of the maps establish on the Internet. It is oftentimes the case that these data are of uncertain origin or quality or it is not known how upwards-to-engagement they are. In other words, the maps have no reliable metadata (data about the data) or no metadata at all. In these instances, even professional person cartographers might find information technology difficult to establish whether or non the information are fit for use. Unfortunately, the cosmos of metadata is often a neglected step of the cartographic process—albeit not only by the amateur cartographer.

In any example, the introduction of the computer has fundamentally changed the relationship between the map and its producer, who can more truly interact with the map, experimenting with pattern and symbology, modifying the map layout, and easily and readily changing scale, project, center, and orientation. Often the map is linked to a database that tin can be queried past the user on the wing. Additionally, multimediality and blitheness have redefined the meaning of the term "map" itself. Maps accept been combined with video, sound, text, and images to enhance the representation potential of the graphic media. Dynamic—or blithe—maps can exist used to overcome one of the limitations of newspaper maps, that is, the fact that they are static. A sequence of maps can exist used to show time changes or symbols can be rolled on the map to represent movement (due east.k., the path of a hurricane). Finally, the Internet has revolutionized the distribution of maps. Anybody with Web access can make a map and publish it for all to see at no toll.

All these topics are discussed in the adjacent sections. The objective is to convey the basic steps in the history of computer mapping, talk over its nowadays state, and to speculate on its possible future.

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