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Patterns of World History Volume 1 2nd Edition Read Free Online

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Natural, physical, or material globe and its phenomena

Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical globe or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The written report of nature is a large, if non the only, part of scientific discipline. Although humans are part of nature, human action is frequently understood every bit a separate category from other natural phenomena.[1]

The word nature is borrowed from the Erstwhile French nature and is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essential qualities, innate disposition", and in aboriginal times, literally meant "nativity".[ii] In ancient philosophy, natura is mostly used every bit the Latin translation of the Greek word physis (φύσις), which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics of plants, animals, and other features of the earth to develop of their ain accordance.[three] [4] The concept of nature every bit a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion;[i] it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this give-and-take had a dynamic dimension then, specially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since.

During the advent of modern scientific method in the terminal several centuries, nature became the passive reality, organized and moved by divine laws.[5] [half-dozen] With the Industrial revolution, nature increasingly became seen as the part of reality deprived from intentional intervention: it was hence considered as sacred by some traditions (Rousseau, American transcendentalism) or a mere decorum for divine providence or human being history (Hegel, Marx). Nevertheless, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the presocratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially subsequently Charles Darwin.[1]

Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" oft refers to geology and wildlife. Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects—the way that item types of things exist and change of their own accordance, such every bit the weather and geology of the Globe. It is often taken to hateful the "natural environment" or wilderness—wild animals, rocks, wood, and in full general those things that have not been substantially altered by homo intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For example, manufactured objects and human interaction mostly are not considered part of nature, unless qualified equally, for example, "homo nature" or "the whole of nature". This more traditional concept of natural things that tin still be plant today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial beingness understood equally that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human heed. Depending on the particular context, the term "natural" might besides exist distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural.[1]

Earth

Earth is the only planet known to back up life, and its natural features are the subject field of many fields of scientific inquiry. Within the Solar Organization, information technology is 3rd closest to the Sun; it is the largest terrestrial planet and the fifth largest overall. Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region.[7] Precipitation varies widely with location, from several metres of h2o per year to less than a millimetre. 71 percent of the Earth'south surface is covered past table salt-h2o oceans. The residuum consists of continents and islands, with well-nigh of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere.

Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original weather condition. The outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates. The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic pall and an atomic number 26-filled core that generates a magnetic field. This iron core is composed of a solid inner phase, and a fluid outer phase. Convective motion in the cadre generates electric currents through dynamo activity, and these, in plough, generate the geomagnetic field.

The atmospheric conditions accept been significantly altered from the original weather condition by the presence of life-forms,[viii] which create an ecological residue that stabilizes the surface conditions. Despite the wide regional variations in climate past breadth and other geographic factors, the long-term average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods,[9] and variations of a degree or two of average global temperature take historically had major effects on the ecological balance, and on the actual geography of the Globe.[10] [11]

Geology

Geology is the science and written report of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth. The field of geology encompasses the study of the composition, structure, physical properties, dynamics, and history of Earth materials, and the processes past which they are formed, moved, and changed. The field is a major academic subject area, and is as well important for mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, noesis about and mitigation of natural hazards, some Geotechnical engineering fields, and understanding past climates and environments.

Geological evolution

The geology of an area evolves through time as stone units are deposited and inserted and deformational processes modify their shapes and locations.

Rock units are showtime emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock. Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the World and later lithify into sedimentary rock, or when as volcanic fabric such as volcanic ash or lava flows, blanket the surface. Igneous intrusions such as batholiths, laccoliths, dikes, and sills, push upwards into the overlying stone, and crystallize as they intrude.

After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be deformed and/or metamorphosed. Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, horizontal extension, or side-to-side (strike-skid) motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform boundaries, respectively, between tectonic plates.

Historical perspective

An animation showing the movement of the continents from the separation of Pangaea until the nowadays twenty-four hour period

Earth is estimated to take formed 4.54 billion years ago from the solar nebula, forth with the Dominicus and other planets.[12] The Moon formed roughly twenty million years afterward. Initially molten, the outer layer of the Globe cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from water ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources.[13] The highly energetic chemical science is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around iv billion years ago.[14]

Plankton inhabit oceans, seas and lakes, and accept existed in various forms for at to the lowest degree ii billion years[15]

Continents formed, then broke up and reformed equally the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to brand a supercontinent. Roughly 750 meg years ago, the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents afterwards recombined to class Pannotia which bankrupt apart most 540 one thousand thousand years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke autonomously most 180 million years ago.[16]

During the Neoproterozoic era, freezing temperatures covered much of the Earth in glaciers and water ice sheets. This hypothesis has been termed the "Snowball Earth", and it is of item interest as it precedes the Cambrian explosion in which multicellular life forms began to proliferate about 530–540 million years ago.[17]

Since the Cambrian explosion at that place take been five distinctly identifiable mass extinctions.[xviii] The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite standoff probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, simply spared small animals such equally mammals. Over the past 66 million years, mammalian life diversified.[19]

Several 1000000 years agone, a species of small African ape gained the ability to stand upright.[15] The subsequent advent of human life, and the evolution of agriculture and further culture allowed humans to bear on the Earth more chop-chop than whatever previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms equally well as global climate. Past comparison, the Groovy Oxygenation Upshot, produced by the proliferation of algae during the Siderian menstruum, required about 300 1000000 years to culminate.

The present era is classified as part of a mass extinction event, the Holocene extinction issue, the fastest e'er to have occurred.[twenty] [21] Some, such equally E. O. Wilson of Harvard Academy, predict that human being destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years.[22] The extent of the electric current extinction upshot is still being researched, debated and calculated by biologists.[23] [24] [25]

Atmosphere, climate, and weather

The Earth'due south atmosphere is a key cistron in sustaining the ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The ozone layer plays an important part in depleting the corporeality of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As Deoxyribonucleic acid is readily damaged past UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower role of the atmosphere, and serves every bit a convective system for redistributing estrus.[26] Bounding main currents are another important gene in determining climate, specially the major underwater thermohaline apportionment which distributes oestrus energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. These currents help to moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones. Also, without the redistributions of heat energy past the body of water currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.

Conditions can take both beneficial and harmful effects. Extremes in atmospheric condition, such as tornadoes or hurricanes and cyclones, can expend large amounts of energy along their paths, and produce devastation. Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the conditions, and sudden changes lasting merely a few years tin can take a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their nutrient.

Climate is a measure of the long-term trends in the weather. Various factors are known to influence the climate, including ocean currents, surface albedo, greenhouse gases, variations in the solar luminosity, and changes to the Earth's orbit. Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including water ice ages.

The climate of a region depends on a number of factors, especially latitude. A latitudinal band of the surface with similar climatic attributes forms a climate region. There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes. Conditions is also influenced by the seasons, which result from the Earth'southward axis beingness tilted relative to its orbital aeroplane. Thus, at any given time during the summer or winter, i part of the World is more direct exposed to the rays of the lord's day. This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. At whatever given time, regardless of season, the northern and southern hemispheres feel reverse seasons.

Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environs, so accurate atmospheric condition forecasting is limited to just a few days.[27] Overall, two things are happening worldwide: (one) temperature is increasing on the average; and (2) regional climates accept been undergoing noticeable changes.[28]

Water on the Earth

H2o is a chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen (Water) and is vital for all known forms of life.[29] In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, only the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor, or steam. H2o covers 71% of the Earth'southward surface.[30] On Earth, information technology is establish by and large in oceans and other large bodies of water, with one.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air every bit vapor, clouds, and atmospheric precipitation.[31] [32] Oceans concord 97% of surface h2o, glaciers, and polar ice caps two.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes, and ponds 0.half-dozen%. Additionally, a minute amount of the Earth's water is independent within biological bodies and manufactured products.

Oceans

A view of the Atlantic Ocean from Leblon, Rio de Janeiro

An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Globe's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) is covered past ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over iii,000 meters (nine,800 feet) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per yard (ppt) (3.five%), and virtually all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of common salt water frequently referred to as the World Ocean or global body of water.[33] [34] This concept of a global ocean as a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.[35]

The major oceanic divisions are defined in office by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Sea. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and other names. There are also salt lakes, which are smaller bodies of landlocked saltwater that are not interconnected with the World Sea. Two notable examples of common salt lakes are the Aral Bounding main and the Corking Salt Lake.

Lakes

Principal article: Lake

A lake (from Latin word lacus) is a terrain feature (or concrete feature), a body of liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the lesser of basin (another blazon of landform or terrain feature; that is, it is not global) and moves slowly if it moves at all. On Globe, a body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, not role of the body of water, is larger and deeper than a pond, and is fed by a river.[36] [37] The only world other than Earth known to harbor lakes is Titan, Saturn'southward largest moon, which has lakes of ethane, most probable mixed with methane. It is not known if Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan'southward surface is carved by numerous river beds. Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are plant in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the earth, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the concluding Water ice Historic period. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

Ponds

Primary article: Swimming

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is commonly smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of h2o are classified every bit ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to shop thermal energy. Ponds and lakes are distinguished from streams via current speed. While currents in streams are hands observed, ponds and lakes possess thermally driven micro-currents and moderate current of air driven currents. These features distinguish a pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools.

Rivers

A river is a natural watercourse,[38] ordinarily freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. In a few cases, a river but flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another trunk of water. Pocket-size rivers may also be chosen past several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; in that location is no general rule that defines what tin exist called a river. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; one instance is Burn in Scotland and North-east England. Sometimes a river is said to be larger than a creek, but this is not always the case, due to vagueness in the language.[39] A river is part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from atmospheric precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks (i.e., from glaciers).

Streams

A stream is a flowing body of water with a current, bars within a bed and stream banks. In the United States, a stream is classified every bit a watercourse less than 60 feet (eighteen metres) wide. Streams are important as conduits in the h2o cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge, and they serve as corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in full general involves many branches of inter-disciplinary natural scientific discipline and engineering science, including hydrology, fluvial geomorphology, aquatic ecology, fish biology, riparian ecology, and others.

Ecosystems

Loch Lomond in Scotland forms a relatively isolated ecosystem. The fish community of this lake has remained unchanged over a very long menstruum of time.[40]

Ecosystems are composed of a variety of biotic and abiotic components that function in an interrelated way.[41] The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated. Variations of these factors will initiate dynamic modifications to the ecosystem. Some of the more important components are soil, atmosphere, radiation from the sunday, water, and living organisms.

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the concrete environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic construction, biotic variety, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials betwixt living and nonliving parts) within the organization is an ecosystem."[42] Inside the ecosystem, species are continued and dependent upon i another in the nutrient chain, and exchange free energy and affair between themselves as well as with their environment.[43] The man ecosystem concept is based on the homo/nature dichotomy and the idea that all species are ecologically dependent on each other, as well equally with the abiotic constituents of their biotope.[44]

A smaller unit of size is called a microecosystem. For example, a microsystem tin can be a stone and all the life under it. A macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion, with its drainage basin.[45]

Wilderness

Wilderness is generally divers as areas that take non been significantly modified past man action. Wilderness areas can be establish in preserves, estates, farms, conservation preserves, ranches, national forests, national parks, and even in urban areas forth rivers, gulches, or otherwise undeveloped areas. Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of sure species, ecological studies, conservation, and solitude. Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and inventiveness,[46] and some ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the Earth'south self-sustaining natural ecosystem (the biosphere). They may also preserve historic genetic traits and that they provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may exist difficult or incommunicable to recreate in zoos, arboretums, or laboratories.

Life

Female mallard and ducklings – reproduction is essential for continuing life

Although there is no universal understanding on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized past organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction.[47] Life may likewise be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.

Backdrop common to terrestrial organisms (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria) are that they are cellular, carbon-and-h2o-based with complex organization, having a metabolism, a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. An entity with these properties is by and large considered life. Notwithstanding, not every definition of life considers all of these backdrop to exist essential. Human-made analogs of life may also be considered to be life.

The biosphere is the part of Earth'due south outer shell—including land, surface rocks, h2o, air and the atmosphere—within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). The entire Earth contains over 75 billion tons (150 trillion pounds or virtually 6.8×ten13 kilograms) of biomass (life), which lives inside various environments within the biosphere.[48]

Over nine-tenths of the full biomass on World is found life, on which animate being life depends very heavily for its existence.[49] More than than 2 million species of plant and beast life have been identified to date,[50] and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over fifty one thousand thousand.[51] [52] [53] The number of individual species of life is constantly in some caste of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to be on a continual basis.[54] [55] The total number of species is in rapid decline.[56] [57] [58]

Development

The origin of life on Earth is not well understood, simply information technology is known to take occurred at least 3.5 billion years ago,[61] [62] [63] during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial Earth that had a substantially dissimilar environs than is found at present.[64] These life forms possessed the basic traits of self-replication and inheritable traits. In one case life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural pick resulted in the development of e'er-more various life forms.

Species that were unable to adapt to the irresolute environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. However, the fossil record retains bear witness of many of these older species. Current fossil and Dna show shows that all existing species tin trace a continual ancestry back to the beginning archaic life forms.[64]

When basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sunday'southward energy could exist harvested to create weather which immune for more than circuitous life forms.[65] The resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of all the same more complex cells called eukaryotes.[66] Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of Earth.

Microbes

The outset form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the merely grade of life until about a billion years agone when multi-cellular organisms began to appear.[67] Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the homo eye tin see. They include Leaner, Fungi, Archaea, and Protista.

These life forms are found in almost every location on the World where there is liquid water, including in the Earth's interior.[68] Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. The combination of a loftier mutation charge per unit and a horizontal factor transfer[69] power makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new environments, including outer space.[70] They form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. Yet, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can postal service wellness risk to other organisms.

Plants and animals

Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not movement fast enough for humans to notice, and animals. In Linnaeus' system, these became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and Animalia. Since and then, it has become clear that the Plantae every bit originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. Withal, these are still often considered plants in many contexts. Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora,[71] [72] and some classifications use the term bacterial flora separately from institute flora.

Among the many means of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can too include fossil flora, remnants
of plant life from a previous era. People in many regions and countries accept great pride in their private arrays of characteristic flora, which can vary widely across the earth due to differences in climate and terrain.

Regional floras commonly are divided into categories such as native flora and agricultural and garden flora, the lastly mentioned of which are intentionally grown and cultivated. Some types of "native flora" actually have been introduced centuries agone by people migrating from one region or continent to some other, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced. This is an example of how human interaction with nature tin blur the boundary of what is considered nature.

Another category of plant has historically been carved out for weeds. Though the term has fallen into aversion amid botanists as a formal mode to categorize "useless" plants, the informal use of the word "weeds" to describe those plants that are deemed worthy of elimination is illustrative of the general tendency of people and societies to seek to change or shape the course of nature. Similarly, animals are often categorized in ways such every bit domestic, farm animals, wild animals, pests, etc. according to their relationship to homo life.

Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular (although meet Myxozoa), which separates them from bacteria, archaea, and virtually protists. They are heterotrophic, by and large digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are as well distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.

With a few exceptions—almost notably the two phyla consisting of sponges and placozoans—animals take bodies that are differentiated into tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and command locomotion, and a nervous organization, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal digestive bedroom. The eukaryotic cells possessed past all animals are surrounded by a feature extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to grade structures like shells, bones, and spicules, a framework upon which cells tin move most and be reorganized during development and maturation, and which supports the complex anatomy required for mobility.

Man interrelationship

Man touch

Although humans comprise only a minuscule proportion of the total living biomass on Globe, the human effect on nature is unduly large. Because of the extent of human influence, the boundaries between what humans regard as nature and "made environments" is not clear cut except at the extremes. Even at the extremes, the amount of natural environment that is free of discernible human influence is diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace. A 2020 study published in Nature found that anthropogenic mass (human-made materials) outweighs all living biomass on earth, with plastic lone exceeding the mass of all state and marine animals combined.[73] And according to a 2021 study published in Frontiers in Forests and Global Modify, only near 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and faunally intact, with a low man footprint and healthy populations of native animal species.[74] [75]

The evolution of applied science past the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards. In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment. There exists a highly complex feedback loop betwixt the use of advanced engineering science and changes to the surroundings that are only slowly becoming understood.[76] Man-made threats to the Earth's natural environment include pollution, deforestation, and disasters such as oil spills. Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals,[77] with roughly 1 million species threatened with extinction within decades.[78] The loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions over the last one-half century have impacted the extent that nature can contribute to human quality of life,[79] and connected declines could pose a major threat to the continued existence of human civilization, unless a rapid course correction is made.[80] The value of natural resources to human society is not reflected in market prices because generally natural resources are bachelor free of charge. This distorts market pricing of natural resources and at the same time leads to underinvestment in our natural assets. The annual global price of public subsidies that damage nature is conservatively estimated at $four–$half-dozen trillion (million million). Institutional protections of these natural goods, such as the oceans and rainforests, are defective. Governments have not prevented these economic externalities.[81] [82]

Humans use nature for both leisure and economic activities. The conquering of natural resources for industrial use remains a sizable component of the earth's economic system.[83] [84] Some activities, such equally hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people. Agriculture was start adopted effectually the 9th millennium BCE. Ranging from food production to energy, nature influences economic wealth.

Although early humans gathered uncultivated establish materials for food and employed the medicinal properties of vegetation for healing,[85] most modernistic human utilise of plants is through agriculture. The clearance of large tracts of land for ingather growth has led to a significant reduction in the amount available of forestation and wetlands, resulting in the loss of habitat for many plant and beast species besides equally increased erosion.[86]

Aesthetics and beauty

Aesthetically pleasing flowers

Beauty in nature has historically been a prevalent theme in art and books, filling large sections of libraries and bookstores. That nature has been depicted and celebrated by and then much art, photography, poesy, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and dazzler. Reasons why this association exists, and what the association consists of, are studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics. Beyond certain bones characteristics that many philosophers agree almost to explain what is seen as beautiful, the opinions are virtually endless.[87] Nature and wildness take been important subjects in various eras of globe history. An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The tradition of representing nature as information technology is became ane of the aims of Chinese painting and was a meaning influence in Asian fine art.

Although natural wonders are historic in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic motion. British artists John Constable and J. Grand. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural globe in their paintings. Before that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of homo beings. William Wordsworth's poesy described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an attribute of Western civilisation.[88] This artistic movement also coincided with the Transcendentalist movement in the Western world. A mutual classical idea of cute art involves the word mimesis, the false of nature. Besides in the realm of ideas about beauty in nature is that the perfect is implied through perfect mathematical forms and more than by and large by patterns in nature. As David Rothenburg writes, "The beautiful is the root of science and the goal of fine art, the highest possibility that humanity can e'er hope to see".[89] : 281

Matter and energy

Some fields of science see nature as thing in motion, obeying sure laws of nature which scientific discipline seeks to empathise. For this reason the near fundamental scientific discipline is generally understood to be "physics"—the proper noun for which is nevertheless recognizable as pregnant that it is the "study of nature".

Matter is unremarkably divers as the substance of which physical objects are composed. It constitutes the observable universe. The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 pct of the total mass. The balance is believed to consist of 26.8 pct cold dark thing and 68.iii percent nighttime energy.[90] The exact organization of these components is nonetheless unknown and is nether intensive investigation by physicists.

The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the appreciable universe appears to follow well-divers physical laws. These laws take been employed to produce cosmological models that successfully explain the structure and the evolution of the universe nosotros tin observe. The mathematical expressions of the laws of physics employ a set of twenty concrete constants[91] that appear to be static beyond the appreciable universe.[92] The values of these constants have been advisedly measured, simply the reason for their specific values remains a mystery.

Beyond Earth

Outer space, likewise simply chosen infinite, refers to the relatively empty regions of the Universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace (and terrestrial locations). There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude. Outer space within the Solar System is called interplanetary space, which passes over into interstellar space at what is known as the heliopause.

Outer infinite is sparsely filled with several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date past microwave spectroscopy, blackbody radiations left over from the Big Bang and the origin of the universe, and cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is besides some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors. Additionally, in that location are signs of human life in outer space today, such every bit material left over from previous crewed and uncrewed launches which are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters the atmosphere periodically.

Although World is the only torso inside the Solar System known to support life, testify suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid h2o on the surface.[93] For a cursory period in Mars' history, it may have also been capable of forming life. Now though, virtually of the water remaining on Mars is frozen. If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located clandestine where liquid h2o can still be.[94]

Weather condition on the other terrestrial planets, Mercury and Venus, appear to be as well harsh to support life as we know it. Just it has been conjectured that Europa, the 4th-largest moon of Jupiter, may possess a sub-surface ocean of liquid h2o and could potentially host life.[95]

Astronomers have started to discover extrasolar Globe analogs – planets that lie in the habitable zone of space surrounding a star, and therefore could maybe host life as we know it.[96]

See also

  • Force of nature
  • Human nature
  • Natural history
  • Naturalism
  • Natural mural
  • Natural law
  • Natural resource
  • Natural scientific discipline
  • Natural theology
  • Nature reserve
  • Nature versus nurture
  • Nature worship
  • Naturism
  • Rewilding

Media:

  • Natural History, past Pliny the Elder
  • Nature, past Ralph Waldo Emerson
  • Nature, a prominent scientific periodical
  • National Wildlife, a publication of the National Wildlife Federation
  • Nature (Tv set series)
  • Natural World (Television receiver series)

Organizations:

  • The Nature Salvation
  • Nature Detectives

Philosophy:

  • Mother Nature
  • Nature (philosophy)
  • Naturalism, any of several philosophical stances, typically those descended from materialism and pragmatism that do not distinguish the supernatural from nature;[97] this includes the methodological naturalism of natural science, which makes the methodological assumption that observable events in nature are explained only by natural causes, without bold either the existence or non-beingness of the supernatural
  • Balance of nature (biological fallacy), a discredited concept of natural equilibrium in predator–prey dynamics

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b c d Ducarme, Frédéric; Couvet, Denis (2020). "What does 'nature' mean?". Palgrave Communications. Springer Nature. six (fourteen). doi:10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y.
  2. ^ Harper, Douglas. "nature". Online Etymology Lexicon . Retrieved September 23, 2006.
  3. ^ An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in Naddaf, Gerard (2006) The Greek Concept of Nature, SUNY Press, and in Ducarme, Frédéric; Couvet, Denis (2020). "What does 'nature' hateful?". Palgrave Communications. Springer Nature. half-dozen (14). doi:10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y. . The word φύσις, while kickoff used in connexion with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses friction match rather well the current senses in which the English word nature is used, equally confirmed by Guthrie, W.Thou.C. Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus (volume 2 of his History of Greek Philosophy), Cambridge UP, 1965.
  4. ^ The starting time known use of physis was by Homer in reference to the intrinsic qualities of a constitute: ὣς ἄρα φωνήσας πόρε φάρμακον ἀργεϊφόντης ἐκ γαίης ἐρύσας, καί μοι φύσιν αὐτοῦ ἔδειξε. (And so proverb, Argeiphontes [=Hermes] gave me the herb, cartoon information technology from the footing, and showed me its nature.) Odyssey 10.302–03 (ed. A.T. Murray). (The word is dealt with thoroughly in Liddell and Scott'south Greek Lexicon Archived March five, 2011, at the Wayback Auto.) For afterwards merely still very early Greek uses of the term, meet earlier annotation.
  5. ^ Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), for example, is translated "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", and reflects the and so-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature"
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Further reading

  • Ducarme, Frédéric; Couvet, Denis (2020). "What does 'nature' mean?". Palgrave Communications. Springer Nature. half-dozen (14). doi:10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y.
  • Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000), Finding Social club in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson. Johns Hopkins Academy Press: Baltimore.
  • Worster, D. (1994). Nature's Economic system: A History of Ecological Ideas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing.
  • Emerson, Ralph W. (1836). Nature. Boston: James Munroe & Co.
  • Naddaf, Gerard (2006). The Greek Concept of Nature. Albany: SUNY Press.

External links

  • The IUCN Carmine List of Threatened Species (iucnredlist.org)
  • Ducarme, Frédéric (Jan 3, 2021). "What is nature?". Encyclopedia of the Environs.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature

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